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DieselNet Technology Guide » Measurement of Emissions
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Abstract: Smoke opacity instruments measure optical properties of diesel smoke, providing an indirect way of measuring of diesel particulate emissions. There are two groups of instruments: opacity meters, which evaluate smoke in the exhaust gas, and smoke number meters, which optically evaluate soot collected on paper filters. Correlations have been developed to estimate PM mass emissions based on opacity measurement. Second generation opacity meters based on laser light scattering are much more sensitive and appear to hold promise for application to newer engines with much lower particulate emissions.
Introduction
Smoke and smoke opacity meters are instruments measuring the optical properties of diesel exhaust. These instruments have been designed to quantify the visible black smoke emission utilizing such physical phenomena as the extinction of a light beam by scattering and absorption. In general, smoke and opacity meters are much simpler (some of them very simple) and less costly in comparison to most other instruments used for PM measurement. They are often used to evaluate smoke emissions in locations outside the laboratory, such as in maintenance shops or in the field. In fact, the smoke opacity measurement is the only relatively low-cost and widely available method to measure a PM-related emission parameter in the field. For this reason, opacity limits are used in most inspection and maintenance (I&M) or periodic technical inspection (PTI) programs for diesel engines. Smoke opacity limits may be also included as auxiliary limits in new engine emission standards.
In view of the demands of advanced, low emission diesel engines, the following areas of concern can be identified in conventional smoke opacity meter technology:
- Insufficient resolution: Smoke levels in low emission, smokeless diesel engines (e.g., Euro IV) are near the resolution of a conventional opacity meter. Resolution, stability, and noise have to be improved to allow opacity measurements in advanced diesel engines.
- Cross sensitivity to nitrogen dioxide: Catalytic exhaust aftertreatment devices, such as oxidation catalysts or particulate filters, can increase the percentage of NO2 in the total NOx from less than 10% to as much as 40% and more. Nitrogen dioxide absorbs green light, which is used in conventional opacity meters. Opacity meters read between 0.00016 and 0.00024 m-1 per ppm NO2, depending on the sensor bandwidth [853]. A 300 ppm NO2 concentration in a modern engine—not an unrealistic assumption—would cause a 0.06 m-1 opacity reading, which is equivalent to 40% of the Euro III EEV pass level, intended to be for soot emissions. For engines fitted with catalytic particulate filters, nearly all opacity signal will be caused by nitrogen dioxide.
- Insensitivity to small particles: A substantial portion of diesel particles have diameters below 200 nm. Particles of 200 nm diameter or greater block green light in proportion to their cross-section surface area. Particles of 50 nm diameter, however, block only about 15% of their surface area [853]. This means that opacity readings depend on particle sizes and will be underestimated if smaller particles are measured.
There have been various attempts to improve the sensitivity of diesel opacity meters, for instance by using multiple light path systems with mirrors [648]. The NO2 cross-sensitivity could be eliminated by switching to a different light wavelength, e.g., to red light. Red, however, is less sensitive to small particles than green. A switch from green to ultraviolet, in turn, could improve the “visibility” of small particles [853]. In view of these conflicting solutions, a simple switch to a different wavelength would not be sufficient.
However, as no satisfactory solution has yet been found, conventional opacity meters based on light extinction measurement may become replaced with devices utilizing other measurement principles. “Second generation” opacity meters based on laser light scattering are much more sensitive. They appear to hold promise for application to newer engines with much lower particulate emissions, including engines fitted with particulate filters.
Smoke opacity readings generally do not correlate well with other PM measurement parameters. Numerous correlations between opacity or smoke readings and PM mass that have been developed can provide only approximate results. Since opacity readings may be affected by sulfates, HCs, water vapor, as well as by PM composition or physical conditions (e.g., coagulation), no accurate correlation is possible.
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INTRODUCTION
Texas Instruments' graphing calculators are very popular among students inhigh school, junior high school, and college. This is especially true in theUnited States, where they are practically the standard for math courses in thehigher grades. TI's models range from inexpensive calculators with basicfunctionality to sophisticated calculators suitable for use throughoutcollege-level math courses and beyond.
Playing a large part in their popularity is the fact that TI's graphingcalculators can be programmed in a language closely resembling BASIC and, inmany cases, in low-level assembly language. On calculators with link ports,these programs can be copied to other calculators of the same type. Manystudents learn to program on these calculators and eventually move up tocomputer programming.
Each available model has a different combination of capabilities, memorycapacity, programmability, and price. See below for descriptions of eachindividual calculator.
CURRENT MODELS
Click on a model's name for a picture and detailed information on thatcalculator.
» TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition (2013)
The TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition is based on the original TI-84 Plus Silver Edition, with a new backlit color display added and software enhancements to take advantage of it, such as highlighting different functions on a graph in different colors for easier comprehension. It also replaces the conventional AAA cells with a rechargeable battery pack.
The TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition is based on the original TI-84 Plus Silver Edition, with a new backlit color display added and software enhancements to take advantage of it, such as highlighting different functions on a graph in different colors for easier comprehension. It also replaces the conventional AAA cells with a rechargeable battery pack.
» TI-Nspire CX & TI-Nspire CX CAS (2011)
The TI-Nspire CX is the most recent evolutionary step. Almost resembling a smartphone, it is the first TI calculator to sport a backlit, color LCD, as well as featuring a removable Wi-Fi module and a rechargeable lithium-ion battery. RAM and storage memory are increased to 64 MB and 100 MB, respectively. The CX no longer features TI-84 Plus keypad support, but it otherwise maintains the features of the earlier Nspire models.
The TI-Nspire CX is the most recent evolutionary step. Almost resembling a smartphone, it is the first TI calculator to sport a backlit, color LCD, as well as featuring a removable Wi-Fi module and a rechargeable lithium-ion battery. RAM and storage memory are increased to 64 MB and 100 MB, respectively. The CX no longer features TI-84 Plus keypad support, but it otherwise maintains the features of the earlier Nspire models.
» TI-Nspire (2007)
The TI-Nspire is a significant departure from previous graphing calculators with its grayscale screen and PDA-like appearance. It uses an ARM processor and features 16 MB of RAM and 20 MB of storage space. With the exception of a TI-84 Plus emulation mode, is not compatible with any of TI's previous calculators. When originally released, it completely lacked programming capability. This was incrementally improved with new OS revisions over the next few years, and currently, development in TI-BASIC, Lua, and ASM/C is possible.
The TI-Nspire is a significant departure from previous graphing calculators with its grayscale screen and PDA-like appearance. It uses an ARM processor and features 16 MB of RAM and 20 MB of storage space. With the exception of a TI-84 Plus emulation mode, is not compatible with any of TI's previous calculators. When originally released, it completely lacked programming capability. This was incrementally improved with new OS revisions over the next few years, and currently, development in TI-BASIC, Lua, and ASM/C is possible.
» TI-Nspire CAS (2007)
The TI-Nspire CAS is the brother of the TI-Nspire. It is intended to be TI's new flagshipgraphing calculator with all of the features of the TI-Nspire plus the inclusion of aComputer Algebra System. Unlike the TI-Nspire, the Nspire CAS does not support the TI-84Plus keypad and so no backwards compatibility exists with the 84 Plus.
The TI-Nspire CAS is the brother of the TI-Nspire. It is intended to be TI's new flagshipgraphing calculator with all of the features of the TI-Nspire plus the inclusion of aComputer Algebra System. Unlike the TI-Nspire, the Nspire CAS does not support the TI-84Plus keypad and so no backwards compatibility exists with the 84 Plus.
» TI-89 Titanium (2004)
The TI-89 Titanium includes all the built-in functionality and power of the originalTI-89. It has an increased amount of Flash ROM which is now equal to that of the Voyage 200 except the TI-89 Titanium is in a traditional handheld design. Along with the Voyage 200, it is TI's most sophisticated calculator, with such features as 3D graphing, upgradable flash ROM, built-in assembly language programming, and a generous amount of user-available memory. It now includes a mini USB port in addition to the standard I/O port.
The TI-89 Titanium includes all the built-in functionality and power of the originalTI-89. It has an increased amount of Flash ROM which is now equal to that of the Voyage 200 except the TI-89 Titanium is in a traditional handheld design. Along with the Voyage 200, it is TI's most sophisticated calculator, with such features as 3D graphing, upgradable flash ROM, built-in assembly language programming, and a generous amount of user-available memory. It now includes a mini USB port in addition to the standard I/O port.
» TI-84 Plus Silver Edition (2004)
The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition is the successor to the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition. Its newfeaturesinclude a new built-in clock and a new mini USB link port in addition to the standard I/Oport. The TI-84 Plus SE was the first calculator made by TI to include their new interchangeable faceplates and a kickstand, both of which add to the overall latest stylistic design from TI.
The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition is the successor to the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition. Its newfeaturesinclude a new built-in clock and a new mini USB link port in addition to the standard I/Oport. The TI-84 Plus SE was the first calculator made by TI to include their new interchangeable faceplates and a kickstand, both of which add to the overall latest stylistic design from TI.
» TI-84 Plus (2004)
The TI-84 Plus is an upgrade to the TI-83 Plus. It remains completely compatible withthe TI-83 Plus. Its features include a new built-in clock, a new mini USB link portin addition to the standard I/O port, added clock speed over the TI-83 Plusand an increase in Flash ROM size. The TI-84 Plus has a newly designed case.
The TI-84 Plus is an upgrade to the TI-83 Plus. It remains completely compatible withthe TI-83 Plus. Its features include a new built-in clock, a new mini USB link portin addition to the standard I/O port, added clock speed over the TI-83 Plusand an increase in Flash ROM size. The TI-84 Plus has a newly designed case.
» Voyage 200 PLT (2002)
The Voyage 200 PLT was the most advanced calculator Texas Instruments made prior to the introduction of the TI-Nspire. It keeps all ofthe qualities of the 92+ while increasing the amount of Flash ROM to 2.7 MB. It alsocomes in the latest stylistic case from TI.
The Voyage 200 PLT was the most advanced calculator Texas Instruments made prior to the introduction of the TI-Nspire. It keeps all ofthe qualities of the 92+ while increasing the amount of Flash ROM to 2.7 MB. It alsocomes in the latest stylistic case from TI.
» TI-83 Plus (1999)
The TI-83 Plus is nearly identical to the TI-83, maintaining backwardcompatibility but greatly increasing available memory and allowing forflash-upgradable ROM and commercial calculator-based applications. This model is the 'base model' of the highly popular 83/84 Plus series.
The TI-83 Plus is nearly identical to the TI-83, maintaining backwardcompatibility but greatly increasing available memory and allowing forflash-upgradable ROM and commercial calculator-based applications. This model is the 'base model' of the highly popular 83/84 Plus series.
» TI-73 & TI-73 Explorer (1998)
The TI-73, like the older TI-80, is designed for middle school classes, butfeatures flash-upgradable ROM like the rest of TI's newest calculators. Italso improves upon the TI-80 with additional statistics functions and a linkport for transferring programs and other data.
The TI-73, like the older TI-80, is designed for middle school classes, butfeatures flash-upgradable ROM like the rest of TI's newest calculators. Italso improves upon the TI-80 with additional statistics functions and a linkport for transferring programs and other data.
DISCONTINUED MODELS
Click on a model's name for a picture and detailed information on thatcalculator.
» TI-83 Plus Silver Edition (2001)
The TI-83 Plus SE is nearly identical to the TI-83 Plus, maintaining backwards compatibility but greatly increasing available memory. Like the 83 Plus, it allows for flash-upgradable ROM and calculator-based applications. It was the most popular among Texas Instruments Z80 calculators, but TI has now discontinued it in favor of the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition.
The TI-83 Plus SE is nearly identical to the TI-83 Plus, maintaining backwards compatibility but greatly increasing available memory. Like the 83 Plus, it allows for flash-upgradable ROM and calculator-based applications. It was the most popular among Texas Instruments Z80 calculators, but TI has now discontinued it in favor of the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition.
» TI-92 Plus (1998, 1999)
The TI-92 Plus was available as both a standalone calculator and a moduleupgrade to the TI-92. It added additional memory, flash-upgradable ROM, andadvanced mathematics software. A TI-92 Plus is functionally almost identicalto a TI-89. The Voyage 200 has since replaced the TI-92 Plus, since it offers additional features.
The TI-92 Plus was available as both a standalone calculator and a moduleupgrade to the TI-92. It added additional memory, flash-upgradable ROM, andadvanced mathematics software. A TI-92 Plus is functionally almost identicalto a TI-89. The Voyage 200 has since replaced the TI-92 Plus, since it offers additional features.
» TI-89 (1998)
The TI-89 sported all of the power of a TI-92 Plus, but in a traditionalhandheld design. Along with the TI-92 Plus and Voyage 200 it was one of TI's most sophisticatedcalculators, with such features as 3D graphing, upgradable flash ROM, built-inassembly language programming, and a generous amount of user-available memory. The TI-89 Titanium has since replaced this model.
The TI-89 sported all of the power of a TI-92 Plus, but in a traditionalhandheld design. Along with the TI-92 Plus and Voyage 200 it was one of TI's most sophisticatedcalculators, with such features as 3D graphing, upgradable flash ROM, built-inassembly language programming, and a generous amount of user-available memory. The TI-89 Titanium has since replaced this model.
» TI-86 (1997)
Just as the TI-83 succeeded the TI-82, the TI-86 followed up on the TI-85'sadvanced functionality while adding a stylish new case, assembly supportsimilar to that of the TI-83, and greater memory capacity, while stillmaintaining compatibility with TI-85 programs.
Just as the TI-83 succeeded the TI-82, the TI-86 followed up on the TI-85'sadvanced functionality while adding a stylish new case, assembly supportsimilar to that of the TI-83, and greater memory capacity, while stillmaintaining compatibility with TI-85 programs.
» TI-83 (1996)
The TI-83 was released as the successor to the TI-82 and featured a newer,more contoured case design that has since been used on all of TI's newercalculators. The TI-83 features backwards compatibility with TI-82 programsand some newer financial functions, but by far the most notable aspect of thiscalculator is built-in assembly programming capability supported by TIitself. This advance saved curious programmers the trouble of 'hacking' thecalculator themselves to achieve this functionality, and marked the beginningof TI's embracement of assembly programming. The TI-83 was a popular programming platform, but has now been replaced by the TI-83 Plus, an updated model.
The TI-83 was released as the successor to the TI-82 and featured a newer,more contoured case design that has since been used on all of TI's newercalculators. The TI-83 features backwards compatibility with TI-82 programsand some newer financial functions, but by far the most notable aspect of thiscalculator is built-in assembly programming capability supported by TIitself. This advance saved curious programmers the trouble of 'hacking' thecalculator themselves to achieve this functionality, and marked the beginningof TI's embracement of assembly programming. The TI-83 was a popular programming platform, but has now been replaced by the TI-83 Plus, an updated model.
» TI-92 (1995)
When it was released, the TI-92 was a huge departure from TI's previousgraphing calculators. It is held horizontally and has a larger display,computer-style QWERTY keyboard, graphical user interface, 3D graphingfeatures, and a Motorola 68000 processor (previous TI calculators relied onslower Z80 processors). Programmers were anxious to make use of the TI-92 forefficient assembly programming, and a loophole was eventually discovered tomake this possible. As a result, many impressive games and programs are nowavailable for the TI-92. Unfortunately the TI-92 is rarely used nowadays, having been replaced by the TI-92 Plus (and later the Voyage 200).
When it was released, the TI-92 was a huge departure from TI's previousgraphing calculators. It is held horizontally and has a larger display,computer-style QWERTY keyboard, graphical user interface, 3D graphingfeatures, and a Motorola 68000 processor (previous TI calculators relied onslower Z80 processors). Programmers were anxious to make use of the TI-92 forefficient assembly programming, and a loophole was eventually discovered tomake this possible. As a result, many impressive games and programs are nowavailable for the TI-92. Unfortunately the TI-92 is rarely used nowadays, having been replaced by the TI-92 Plus (and later the Voyage 200).
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» TI-80 (1995)
The TI-80 was released with Algebra I and middle school students in mind. Likethe TI-81, it has no link port and is not intended for serious programming.The TI-80's newer cousin, the TI-73, sports flash upgradability and morememory, and has completely replaced the TI-80 in everyday use.
The TI-80 was released with Algebra I and middle school students in mind. Likethe TI-81, it has no link port and is not intended for serious programming.The TI-80's newer cousin, the TI-73, sports flash upgradability and morememory, and has completely replaced the TI-80 in everyday use.
» TI-82 (1993)
The TI-82 was released as a more user-friendly version of the TI-85, at thesacrifice of many of its advanced features, but with a lower price tag. Itwas long believed that the TI-82 could not be programmed in assembly, but, aswith the TI-85, a loophole was eventually found, making the TI-82 a much moreattractive programming platform. The TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus have taken the placeof the TI-82 as the standard in math and science classrooms and the TI-82 has been discontinued.
The TI-82 was released as a more user-friendly version of the TI-85, at thesacrifice of many of its advanced features, but with a lower price tag. Itwas long believed that the TI-82 could not be programmed in assembly, but, aswith the TI-85, a loophole was eventually found, making the TI-82 a much moreattractive programming platform. The TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus have taken the placeof the TI-82 as the standard in math and science classrooms and the TI-82 has been discontinued.
» TI-85 (1992)
The TI-85 was designed as a powerful engineering and calculus calculator. Itwas the first TI calculator to have a link port and assembly programmingcapability (through an unintentional loophole). It has since been eclipsed bythe TI-86, which features TI-85 compatibility along with more advancedfeatures.
The TI-85 was designed as a powerful engineering and calculus calculator. Itwas the first TI calculator to have a link port and assembly programmingcapability (through an unintentional loophole). It has since been eclipsed bythe TI-86, which features TI-85 compatibility along with more advancedfeatures.
» TI-81 (1990)
The TI-81, TI's first graphing calculator, was designed for algebra andprecalculus. Compress pdf 2 0 0 3. It has since been replaced by newer models which have fasterprocessors, more memory, and popular features such as linking capability andflash upgradability. The TI-81 drew little in the way of third-party gamesand other programs, since the code must be typed into the calculator by hand.
The TI-81, TI's first graphing calculator, was designed for algebra andprecalculus. Compress pdf 2 0 0 3. It has since been replaced by newer models which have fasterprocessors, more memory, and popular features such as linking capability andflash upgradability. The TI-81 drew little in the way of third-party gamesand other programs, since the code must be typed into the calculator by hand.
CHOOSING WHICH MODEL TO BUY
There's a wide variety of TI graphing calculator models you can choose from --which is right for you? Texas Instruments tends to create calculator modelsfor a target area of students in certain grade levels. See below for anoverview of who will benefit the most from each currently offered model.
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- The TI-73 is intended for middle school studentsin basic algebra classes. It performs many basic arithmetic and graphingfunctions. However, we only recommend the TI-73 if price is an absolute concern and the calculator will be used only for elementary mathematics. For slightly more expense, the TI-83 Plus will be a far superior buy.
- The TI-83 Plus is intended for most highschool students. It has many enhanced features in addition to those of the TI-82 and 83. This calculator makes an excellent first choice for the average student. The TI-84 Plus has more available RAM and a faster processor than the TI-83 Plus.
- The TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus SE are esentially a TI-83 Plus with a few more features, including a clock, USB port, and additional speed and memory. Designed for high school students, these two calculators are for the users wanting to get as much out of their calculator as possible. If you are looking for a calculator based solely on its math capabilities, the TI-83 Plus will do as much as the TI-84 series will at a cheaper price. However, if you can afford the added cost of the TI-84 series, it will provide a better value than the TI-83 Plus.
- The TI-89 Titanium and its QWERTY-equipped brother, the Voyage 200 PLT, are among the most advanced Texas Instruments calculators onthe market. The Voyage 200 PLT is a TI-92+ in a fancy new case with a significant increase in available Flash ROM, and is at the top of the line. If you need the utmost mathematical horsepower, pick up any of these.
- The TI-89 Titanium offers largely the same mathematical capabilities as the TI-89, so there is no major advantage there. However, there is much more available Flash ROM. The regular TI-89 is suggested for gamers because not all of the current programs work on the Titanium, although the situation is improving. However the Titanium has several other features, including a USB port, which makes it much more friendly to the average user. The Titanium is essentially a Voyage 200 PLT but without the QWERTY keyboard. The Titanium has replaced the regular 89 for sale in many stores.
- The TI-Nspire and TI-Nspire CX exist as both CAS (Computer Algebra System) and non-CAS models. As of 2011, these models are still quite new and are drastically different from any prior calculators. It remains to be seen how well they are adopted. We recommend that average students stick to the other models above until the long-term success of the TI-Nspire is proven.
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With this information at your fingertips, we hope that purchasing a calculatorwill be easier for you. By knowing background information on every TexasInstruments graphing calculator you can make a more informed decision. It'srecommended to read up on the features of the calculator(s) you've got your eyeon before purchasing just to make sure you're getting what you need.